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As a concept, values are often interchanged with ethics (and not infrequently also with standards), particularly in relation to addressing corruption or maladministration. While there is a close and often interdependent relationship between both, such interchanging is problematic for the study of either concept, and it is notable that in Canada, a distinction was drawn between both in the establishment of an Office for Public Service Values and Ethics in 1991. A similar distinction is necessary here. As noted above, values in and of themselves do not have agency i.e. they do not actually do anything. Instead it is the application of ethical codes to values that will lead to particular behaviour. Ethics, therefore, are in effect the rules that translate values into everyday life. At its most basic, ethics is about determining what is ‘wrong’, ‘good’, ‘bad’ or ‘right’, and ethical choices are informed by values which help actors decide on what option to take when faced with an ethical dilemma. While the values of different bureaucracies may vary between states, similar ethical challenges are routinely met, particularly in respect of issues of resource management. It is because of conflicts between ethical and unethical behaviour that Codes (or Standards) of Conduct and rules of procedure have emerged in importance. They provide an aide or benchmark against which decisions can be made and acted upon. PUBLIC SERVICE VALUES In his work on changing public sector values, Van Wart argues that ethics are a sub-set of values, and that values form our broad, socially derived ethical standards for how the world should operate. Ethics, he proposes, is doing the right thing, that is, acting on values. Values inform all aspects of ethical decision-making - ethical judgment, ethical choice and ethical behaviour - and are reinforced by them. Similarly, Gortner proposes that ‘an understanding of the role of values in choices clarifies many of the issues related to ethics in public administration’. In the context of malpractices being exposed in multinational corporations, a range of corporate governance and legal requirements are now in place for the oversight and audit of such organisations. Many of these requirements have also been applied to public organisations. As well as the development of extensive rules and regulations guiding the activities of public and private organisations, there is a focus on the adoption of ethical values and work practices which encourage adherence to the spirit as well as the letter of these requirements. Distinctions between ‘positive’ and ‘negative’ values are misplaced, as how values are interpreted is in and of itself a value-based act. Therefore, by definition, values cannot be negative or positive - rather, how they are used to inform decisions and performance can be viewed from negative or positive viewpoints. For example, confidentiality as a value may be interpreted in a positive manner (provides for trust between an organisation and its customers) or negatively (it inhibits transparency). In a similar vein, not all values are ethical values (i.e. concerned with right and wrong), and values may be unethical or non-ethical. Also, some ethical values, including fairness and honesty, are more germane to the public service than others
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